Explanation

• Vitamin Name: B12 (Cobalamin)
• Source: Produced by gut bacteria; present in meat, fish, eggs, dairy
• Function: Essential for RBC formation, nerve function, DNA synthesis
• Not Found In: Fruits and vegetables

Last verified on 16-01-2026

Explanation

Pasteurization of milk is a heat treatment process used to kill harmful microorganisms.

In the HTST method, milk is heated to 161°F (72°C) for 15 seconds.

Additional information:

• Another method: LTLT → 145°F for 30 minutes
• Pasteurization improves safety and shelf life of milk

Last verified on 16-01-2026

Explanation

Fats and oils provide more energy than carbohydrates and proteins. 

• Energy from fats: ~9 kcal/g
• Energy from carbs: ~4 kcal/g
• Energy from proteins: ~4 kcal/g
• Ratio: 9 ÷ 4 = 2.25 times

Last verified on 16-01-2026

Explanation

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) helps prevent browning in fruits.

By inhibiting the enzymes responsible for oxidation.

It is commonly used to keep cut fruits fresh.

Additional information:

• Commonly used in food preservation (lemon juice on fruits)
• Also essential for immunity and collagen formation

Last verified on 16-01-2026

Explanation

Phosphorus is a major mineral in the human body.

It makes up about 14–17% of the skeleton.

Additional information:

Skeleton Composition:

• Calcium: ~65%
• Phosphorus: ~14–17%
• Magnesium: ~1%
• Sodium & others: trace amounts

Last verified on 16-01-2026

Explanation

• Nature of Disease: Chronic and progressive
• Main Causes: Hepatitis B & C, alcohol abuse, fatty liver disease
• Effect: Scarring (fibrosis) reduces liver efficiency

Explanation

• The intensity of a stimulus in the brain is detected by the frequency of nerve impulses. 
• A stronger stimulus produces a higher number of action potentials per second.

Additional information:

• The brain interprets stimulus strength by impulse frequency, not impulse size
• Common in sensory neurons (touch, pain, sound)

Last verified on 15-01-2026

Explanation

Bang-e-Dara (The Call of the Caravan): His first collection of Urdu poetry,

Iqbal's Urdu poetry collection is available in four books.

1. Bang-i-Dara 1924
2. Bal-e-Jibril 1935
3. Zarb-i-Kalim 1936
4. Armaghan-e-Hijaz 1938

Explanation

In plant cells, the Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.

Additional information:

• Discovered by: Melvin Calvin
• Phase of Photosynthesis: Dark reaction (light-independent)
• Main Function: Conversion of CO₂ into glucose
• Energy Used: ATP and NADPH

Last verified on 15-01-2026

Explanation

• Protein-coding DNA: ~1.5–2% of the human genome
• Total genes: ~20,000–21,000 protein-coding genes
• Non-coding DNA: ~98% (regulatory, introns, repetitive sequences)
• Genome size: ~3 billion base pairs

Additional information:

• Non-coding DNA plays roles in gene regulation and expression
• Earlier called “junk DNA,” now known to have important biological functions

Last verified on 15-01-2026